The Age of Enlightenment

What is the enlightenment? Well Immanuel Kant responded, "Dare to know." Those who advocated enlightenment were convinced that they were emerging from centuries of darkness and ignorance into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and humanity. Such thinkers were called philosophes in France. These philosophes would gather around in salons, which were discussion groups organized by women. The early Enlightenment was deeply rooted in the Scientific Revolution, and was influenced by Great Britain, especially John Locke. Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding, said that the individual is a blank slate at birth, thus education shaped the person. As years passed the Enlightenment then got roots in France with such people like Voltaire and Rousseau. We see Smith in England giving new economic perspectives. And of course, those Rulers who wanted to be "Enlightened" we call them "Enlightened Despots."

Perhaps the Greatest. Born in 1694, died in 1778. Even though the Jesuits educated him, Voltaire hated the Catholic Church. He was a deist: God creates everything, and then steps back to see how it evolves on its own. Famous Quote: Écrasez l' infime! (Crush the horrible thing!) referring of course to the Church. Most famous work: Candide (1759): deeply pessimistic work: "One must cultivate one's own garden." Greatest Legacy: Struggle for Religious Toleration.

Charles Louis de Secondant, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) wrote Spirit of the Laws (1748). Montesquieu was a member of the French aristocracy, yet he was inspired by the British political system. In his book he advocated a separation of powers amongst the branches of government, and may have inspired the system of Checks and Balances, 2 key elements of the Constitution of the United States. He was politically conservative, he did not want a republic, yet he longed for a state in which the aristocracy will place boundaries on French absolutism, in some ways wanted a Constitutional Monarchy in France. He was anti-slavery.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) wrote The Encyclopedia, one of the greatest achievements of the Enlightenment. The first edition of Encyclopedia came out in 1751 with people like Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau wrote articles for it. The Encyclopedia was essential in that it spread the Enlightenment out of France. They sent it to Russia and Scandinavia, to Tommy Jefferson and Ben Franklin. Throughout Europe the book was censored, and ironically Diderot had to turn to the throne of France in order to protect his copyright.

Rousseau (1712-1778), antagonized Voltaire, who hated Rousseau's emotion over reason principle. He was lonely, lived a very troubled life. Unlike the majority of the philosophes who wanted a constitutional monarchy, Rousseau advocated Direct Democracy. His ideas helped shape the most radical elements of the French Revolution. He wrote The Social Contract (1762) begins with, "All men are born free, but is everywhere in chains." Rousseau set the stage for Romanticism.

Germany: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) in Critique of Pure Reason (1781), was another guy who helped shape the Enlightenment Movement.

Italy: Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764) called for overhaul in Jurisprudence. Called for basic rights for those who are accused of doing a crime, and advocated that torture should not be used. Had the theme of Humanitarianism implanted into the Enlightenment.

Scotland: David Hume (1711-1776) was one of the first to get into the world of atheism, went farther than any of those in France would have advocated in their idea of religion. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) wrote Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, new historical perspective in the Enlightenment. Most important guy was Adam Smith (1723-1790). In 1776 he wrote Wealth of Nations, argues against mercantilism. Economy should be practicing laissez-faire literally meaning "leave alone." Argued that individuals should not have government intervention in how they conduct business, and that gov't should have an "invisible hand" in how individuals cope with the system of Supply and Demand, one of the first to officially set the ideas of what was to become Capitalism.

Women were prominent in the Enlightenment, especially in France where they were the hostesses of the salons. Wealth and aristocratic women helped out the philosophes in ways to avoid censorship. Even though women helped a lot in the Enlightenment, the philosophes barely mentioned the rights and abilities of women. Rousseau said that men and women were in separate spheres and that women should not be granted equal education to that of men. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women, and said that women should have the right to vote as well as to hold political office.

Several monarchs, mostly in Central and Eastern Europe were inspired by the philosophes. These monarchs like Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick II of Prussia were called Enlightened Despots - or the more politically correct term: Enlightened Absolutists. These monarchs thought that the ideas of the philosophes could enhance the power of their states, as well as their personal authority in that state.

Russia: During the reign of Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725), Peter wanted to westernize Russia. He made the Russian aristocracy dress in the garments of their counterparts in Western Europe. He also westernized his army by providing the latest technologies as that enjoyed in Western Europe. He even moved the capital of Russia to St. Petersburg (far to the west of what it was), and built the Russian Navy (he himself built the first boat of the navy). Voltaire said: "Peter the Great, Catherine the Greater." Catherine the Great reigned between 1762 and 1796, after successfully achieving an internal coup d' etat in the Russian Imperial Palace. She read Montesquieu and Voltaire, and invited Diderot to Russia. She set out to revise and codify Russian law.

Prussia: Frederick II (r.1740-1786), known as Frederick the Great, was a member of the Hohenzollern family. He wanted to make Berlin a cultural center. He tried to revise and codify Prussian law, as well as reorganize the Prussian economy. He allowed both Catholics and Jews to settle in Prussia, a place where Lutherans were the majority.

Austria: Hapsburg Emperor Joseph II (r.1765-1790). Was impressed with religious toleration (even though he advocated this for political reasons since he wanted to reduce the power of the Catholic Church in his country.) In 1781 issued Edict of Toleration: Granting Jews, Lutherans, and Calvinists, freedom of worship, yet Jews had to pay special taxes in order to worship. Joseph pissed off the aristocracy because he taxed them and abolished slavery. When he died in 1790, his brother Leopold II (r. 1790-1792) had to remove most of Joseph's policies because of a series of aristocratic and peasant revolt.